Reading Comprehension ( Website Links)

Psychology

Psychology Articles by Uncommon Knowledge (Psychology Articles by Uncommon Knowledge )
Recent Psychology Articles (Results 1 - 15 of about 453) (Recent Psychology Articles (Results 1 - 15 of about 507) )

Sociology

The 50 Most-Frequently Read Articles in Sociology (The 50 Most-Frequently Read Articles in Sociology )
sociology - List of sociology topics (sociology - List of sociology topics )

Literature

Literary Genres and Learning How to Write (Literary Genres and Learning How to Write )
Arts & Literature Articles (Arts & Literature Articles )

History

TheHistoryNet: From the World's Largest History Magazine Publisher (TheHistoryNet: From the World's Largest History Magazine Publisher )
Political and Religious Events in North America and Europe (Political and Religious Events in North America and Europe )

Politics

Magazine Articles on International Politics (current) (Magazine Articles on International Politics (current) )

Government & Political Articles (Government & Political Articles )

Geography

Geography - Articles (Geography - Articles)
EZGeography - Hundreds of Geography Articles ( EZGeography - Hundreds of Geography Articles)

Economics

Economics - Articles ( Economics - Articles)
Europe Economics: Articles and Working Papers ( Europe Economics: Articles and Working Papers)

Management

Magazine Articles on Strategy & Management (current) ( Magazine Articles on Strategy & Management (current))
Management Articles (Management Articles )

Management Methods | Management Models | Management Theories
Category:Management - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Business Management, Leadership and Decision Making Strategies and Resources - BetterManagement.com
Moneyterms: investment/finance glossary/dictionary/education
BusinessDictionary.com - Online Business Dictionary

My experiences I feel nostalgic

guys while tackling with RCs please keep the following points in mind ...

Step 1) Try to get an estimate of your reading speed and comfort level with various topics given in CAT first (You can try your hand @ How to read faster & better by Norman Lewis)

Step 2) Read on diverse topics regularly. Summarize whatever you have read and note down the important points. (would be helpful for GD)

Step 3) Practice a lot from the previous years mock papers

I am attaching some material which might be helpful

You can refer to the following links as well

1. http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors/errors.html
2. English Learning for Beginners ESL EFL learning materials including grammar, listening, vocabulary, reading, writing, reference, quizzes and an online course, as well as free lesson plans for ESL EFL Teachers.
3. Capital Community College - Redirect Page

Science

FirstScience - Science Articles
Science and technology information from Scientific American
Science Daily: News & Articles in Science, Health, Environment & Technology

Religion/Mythology

Philosophy & Religious Articles
religion online

Philosophy

Philosopher Biographies and Ideas
http://www.prs-ltsn.leeds.ac.uk/philosophy/articles/index.html

Psychology Articles by Uncommon Knowledge
Recent Psychology Articles (Results 1 - 15 of about 507)

Sociology

The 50 Most-Frequently Read Articles in Sociology
sociology - List of sociology topics

Literature

Literary Genres and Learning How to Write
Arts & Literature Articles

History

TheHistoryNet: From the World's Largest History Magazine Publisher
Political and Religious Events in North America and Europe

Politics

Magazine Articles on International Politics (current)

Government & Political Articles

Geography

Geography - Articles
EZGeography - Hundreds of Geography Articles

Economics

Economics - Articles
Europe Economics: Articles and Working Papers

Management

Magazine Articles on Strategy & Management (current)
http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~gerard/Management/

Science

FirstScience - Articles (FirstScience - Science Articles)
Science and technology information from Scientific American (Science and technology information from Scientific American)
Science Daily: News & Articles in Science, Health, Environment & Technology ( Science Daily: News & Articles in Science, Health, Environment & Technology)

Religion/Mythology

Philosophy & Religious Articles (Philosophy & Religious Articles)
religion online (religion online )

Philosophy

Philosopher Biographies and Ideas (Philosopher Biographies and Ideas)
Articles (http://www.prs-ltsn.leeds.ac.uk/philosophy/articles/index.html )


** Also refer to The Guardian for some nice articles.

General Strategies for Reading Comprehension, by Stephen Bolton

1. Try to read the whole text of the passage once, if possible. Many people think you should just skim the passage or read the first lines of every paragraph, and not to read the passage. We believe this is an error: if you misunderstand the main idea of the passage, you will certainly get at least some of the questions wrong. Give the passage one good read, taking no more than 3 minutes to read all of the text. Do not read the passage more than once – that wastes too much time. If you have not understood it completely, try to answer the questions anyway. Note: this point of reading the whole passage is important for test-takers whose first language is not English, provided that they can read the passage in 3 minutes or less.

2. Make brief notes on the text on your scrap paper. As we will see below in greater detail, you should write down a couple of words on A) the Main Idea or Primary Purpose, B) Organization/Structure of the passage, and C) the Tone or Attitude of the author (if applicable). You just need a few words for each of these areas, and altogether it should not take longer than 30 seconds to write down.

3. Remember that the tone or attitude of the passage is usually respectful and moderate, never going to extremes of praise nor criticism. ETS obtains its Reading Comprehension passages from real articles about real academics and professionals. So the tone of the articles, even when there is criticism in the passage toward an academic or her work, is always balanced and moderate. In the same vein, articles that deal with minorities or ethnic groups are almost always positive and sympathetic.

4. Look out for structural words that tell you the important ideas or transitions in a passage.

Continue the Idea Words
Similarly
Moreover
Additionally
In the same way
Likewise

Conclusion Words
Thus
Therefore
Hence
So
In summary
In conclusion

Contradiction or Contrast Words
Neverthless
Nonetheless
However
But
Although
Though
Even though
Notwithstanding
Yet
Despite
In spite of
On the one hand…on the other hand
While
Unlike

5. Go back to the text of the passage for the answers. Many test-takers fail to return to the text of the passage to look for the correct answers. They rely solely on their memories and understanding of the passage after having read or skimmed it. Wrong. ETS is counting on that. Go back to the text to look for information to answer the questions. Nine times out of ten, the answer lies within the passage.

Of the 6 most important types of questions for Reading Comprehension, we will first look at Main Idea/Primary Purpose Questions, and the strategies we can use to answer them.

Main Idea/Primary Purpose Questions

Many people believe there is no difference between the main or central idea of the passage and the primary purpose of the author of the passage. This is simply not true. Let's take a look at the subtle but important difference between them:

Main Idea
The question might look something like this:

"Which of the following best states the central idea of the passage?"
"Which of the following most accurately states the main idea of the passage?"
"Which of the following is the principal topic of the passage?"
"The main topic of the passage is...."

Primary Purpose
The question might look like this:

"The primary purpose of this passage is to..."
"The primary purpose of the passage as a whole is to..."
"The primary focus of this passage is on which of the following?"
"The main concern of the passage is to..."
"In the passage, the author is primarily interested in...."
"The passage is chiefly concerned with..."

Strategy:

Main Idea: Look in the first and last paragraphs for the main idea. Any conclusion words like therefore, thus, so, hence, etc. that you see are most likely introducing the main idea. The correct answer will say the same thing as it says in the text, but using different words. The Main Idea is not always stated explicitly in the passage – in fact, more likely than not, it is not stated explicitly. Therefore, in order to answer this type of question when it is more implicit:

1. Re-read the first line of every passage, and the last line of the first and last paragraphs. This should give you the general structure or outline of the argument, with which you can answer the Main Idea question.

2. After determining the general structure or content of the argument, eliminate answer choices that are too broad or too specific, i.e. answer choices that go beyond the content of the passage, or that deal with content only discussed in one paragraph of the passage.

3. Make brief notes – a couple of words- regarding the Main Idea on the text on your scrap paper while you read.

Primary Purpose: What is the author trying to do? What is his intention? If he is evaluating a theory, then the answer could be something like "Discuss an interpretation". Note that the correct answer would deal with "an interpretation", because the author is only dealing with one theory. If the Primary Purpose is to criticize 2 new books, then his intention or his primary purpose might be to "Critique new studies". Again, as in Main Idea questions, re-read the first line of every passage, and the last line of the first and last paragraphs. This should give you the general structure or outline of the argument, with which you can answer the Primary Purpose question.

Note: A good main idea or primary purpose does not go beyond the scope of the passage, nor does it limit itself to discussing only one part of the passage.

What is the primary purpose of this passage?
A)	discuss the importance of the television program Star Trek for the international space program
B)	discuss important theoretical work concerned with faster-than-light space travel.
C)	explore a dispute among theoretical physicists regarding the uses of space flight
D)	describe the possible uses of space-warping material
E)	explain how a space-warping bubble would work in the real world

Explanation

This is a Primary Purpose question, so we have to determine what the author is trying to do or say in this passage. So, let's read the first and last lines of the passage in order to get an idea of the primary purpose. The first line says "Great news for Star Trek fans: warp drives that can propel starships around the Galaxy faster than the speed of light may be possible after all--with a little help from Dr Who." The last line is a quote by a physicist that says "Of course, there are still some basic questions--like how does one go about constructing this Tardis space-time--but it puts the concept of space warps back on the agenda." From both these sentences, we get the idea of space travel, faster than light travel and space warps – maybe this is a discussion of faster than light space travel. Does that match what you have already read? Yes, basically this is a discussion of the theoretical state of play in the area of faster-than-light space travel. Do any of the 5 answer choices match that? Yes – B, even if the wording is somewhat different from how we are wording it, the idea is almost exactly the same. B is the answer.

Another way of getting to the answer is through elimination of obviously incorrect answer choices. We can eliminate A because the author mentions the popular science fiction program Star Trek merely to introduce the idea of faster-than-light travel, and nothing more. C is a stronger possibility because the second paragraph of the passage does discuss some disagreement among physicists about the possibility of creating a warp-drive, but in the same paragraph the theoretical dilemma seems resolved. Moreover, since the author only discusses this in one paragraph, it cannot be the primary purpose of the entire passage. We can eliminate D because the author does not go into detail discussing the uses of space-warping material. And we can discard E because the author does not really go into how the space-warping bubble would work in the real world.

Title Questions
by Stephen Bolton, 20th August, 1999

Title questions are very similar to Main Idea questions, though are less common. Though some of the example paassage we use in this tutorial and in the Practice Section are from the New Scientist, and therefore have titles, the passages in the real GMAT will not have titles. The question might look like this:

"Which of the following titles best summarizes the passage as a whole?"

Strategy:

Treat this as a Main Idea question. A good title sums up the central idea of a passage. Therefore, in order to answer this type of question:

1. Look in the first and last paragraphs for the main idea. Any conclusion words like therefore, thus, so, hence, etc. that you see are most likely introducing the Main Idea/Title. The correct answer will say the same thing as it says in the text, but using different words.

2. Re-read the first line of every passage, and the last line of the first and last paragraphs. This should give you the general structure or outline of the argument, with which you can answer the Title question.

3. Make brief notes – a couple of words- regarding the Title on the text on your scrap paper while you read.

4. After determining the general structure or content of the argument, eliminate answer choices that are too broad or too specific, i.e. answer choices that go beyond the content of the passage, or that deal with content only discussed in one paragraph of the passage.

What would be an appropriate title for this passage?
A)	Constructing The Tardis
B)	How To Make Space-Warping Material
C)	Bubbles In Space-Time
D)	Faster-Than-Light Travel: A Possibility?
E)	Debate On The Uses of Space Travel

Explanation

This passage actually already has a title, "Warp Factor One". But we have to look for another title possibility, one that would be most like the Main Idea of the passage. We look at the first and last paragraphs, and since the Main Idea is that researchers now feel that faster-than-light travel maybe more than mere fantasy, we can find the correct answer choice. Does any answer choice corrspond to this idea? Yes- answer D, which is the correct answer.

We can also find the correct answer through elimination. There is nowhere in the passage where it discusses building Dr. Who's Tardis (pity!), so we can eliminate A. Nor does it tell us how to make space-warping material. Eliminate B. While bubbles in space-time are discussed at some length in one of the paragraphs, we cannot say this is the main concern of the passage, and thus should eliminate C. And nowhere are the uses of space travel discussed, so discard E.

Specific Detail or Target questions are probably the most common types of questions, and the easiest to answer. The question might look like this:

"According to the passage,...."
"The passage states that ...."

Strategy

The Specific Detail or Target that we are looking for could be a Line Number, or a Name or Date. Go to the Line Number or Name or Date, and then read several lines above and below it. Find the answer choice that basically says the same thing as in the passage, though usually with different words or word order.

According to the passage, Pfenning and Ford
A)	demonstrated conclusively the impossibility of faster-than-light travel
B)	explored the possibility of bubbles that warp space
C)	supported the work of Alcubierre
D)	work at of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the Catholic University of Leuven
E)	suggested that a warp drive was not physically possible

Explanation

This is a Specific Detail/Target question, and therefore we look for the Name, Line Number, or Date that will help us. In this case, the detail consists of the names Pfenning and Ford. We scan the text, starting from the top of the passage, looking for the names Pfenning and Ford. We find them in only place, at the beginning of the second paragraph. We read a couple of lines above the names, and keep reading until a few lines after the names. It says "But in 1997 Michael Pfenning and Larry Ford at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, apparently killed this ingenious idea by showing that it needed far more than the entire energy content of the Universe to work (This Week, 26 July 1997, p 6)". The line after that says the research of another physicist then resurrected the possibility of FTL travel, negating the implications of the research of Pfenning and Ford. Now we can answer the question. Do any of the answer choices match the information given around the target area? Yes- E.

Let's also eliminate. If we re-read what the passage says about Pfenning and Ford, we can eliminate B, C, and D. None of them are supported by the information in the passage, so let's eliminate all of them without wasting too much time and with a minimum of fuss. A is tougher to eliminate. From the sentence that mention Pfenning and Ford, it seems their work does rule out the possibility of a space-warp drive. But if we read the next line, it says another researcher said it was indeed possible. So the Pfenning and Ford could not have "conclusively" demonstrated the impossibity of the FTL drive.

This is probably the most difficult type of Reading Comprehension problem. The question might look like this:

"It can be inferred that the author makes which of the following assumptions?"
"Which is an assumption underlying the last sentence of the passage?"
"Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the hypothesis mentioned in lines 17-19?"
"With which of the following statements regarding chaos theory would the author be most likely to agree?"

Strategy:

1. First, treat this type of problem as a Specific Target question. Look for a target in the question, find it in the text, and then look above and below it. Often you do not have to infer very much, the answer remains within the text.

2. If the answer must be inferred and is not stated explicitly within the text, then choose the answer choice that can be inferred or assumed from the information given. Again, you should not have to infer very much – only one or two logical steps removed from the information in the passage.

3. Make sure that the answer choice you decide on does not violate or contradict the Main Idea of the passage - if it does, the answer choice is probably wrong.

It can be inferred that a house with the propeties of the bubble mentioned in the passage
A)	would be larger on the inside than on the outside
B)	could move faster than the speed of light
C)	might be very energy efficient
D)	could move through time
E)	would eventually fold in on itself and be destroyed

Explanation

First, let's try to deal with this question as a Specific Target problem. Is there a target in the question? Yes – the bubble. The bubble is first mentioned at the end of the second paragraph, and then discussed at length throughout the third paragraph. Remember, we have to look above and below that target area (as well as read the target area again), so quickly go through the second, third, and first part of the fourth paragraph.

When you are finished, look at the answer choices. Can any of them be inferred from the information given in the target area? Well, we could eliminate C, D, and E for simply not being supported by the information given in the passage. B – maybe, but a house moving through time seems pretty silly. But in the fourth paragraph the author talks about the Tardis, "which looked like a police box but had a spacious interior". Big on the inside, small on the outside. Is that like our house? Yes- answer A. As well, we can choose A because it does not go against or contradict the Main Idea in this case, which if it had, would have made it necessary to eliminate. So choose A.

The question might look like this:

"The author's attitude towards Morgan's theory could best be described as one of ..."

Strategy:

Look for descriptive words, adjectives or adverbs, that could tell you the author's attitude. For example, the words unfortunately or flaw suggest a negative connotation, while strength or valuable emphasize the positive. Make brief notes – a couple of words- regarding the Tone of the text on your scrap paper while you read. Additionally, keep in mind that the author's attitude toward a theory, book, or ethnic group will almost always be respectful, even when somewhat critical.

The author's attitude towards Miguel Alcibierre's theory could best be described as one of
A)	admiration
B)	mild skepticism
C)	unbridled scorn
D)	dismay
E)	complete objectivity

Explanation

Since this is a Tone/Attitude question, we must look in the passage for descriptive words that tell us what the author thinks of Alcibierre and his theory. In the second paragraph the author call's Alcibierre's theory "this ingenious idea". This is positive, and the only positive answer choice is A. A is the correct answer. As well, if we could not find the tone so easily, we could also eliminate C and D at the very least, for being too extreme.

The question might look like this:

"Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?"
"Which of the following best describes the organization of the first paragraph of the passage?"
"One function of the third paragraph is to...."

Strategy:

Re-read the first line of every passage, and the last line of the first and last paragraphs. This should give you the general structure or outline of the argument, with which you can answer the question. Remember to make brief notes about the structure of the text on your scrap paper. If you are looking for the organization of one paragraph, read the first and second sentence of the paragraph. That will give you a rough idea of what is the structure or organization of the paragraph.

Which of the following best describes the organization of the second paragraph of the passage?
A)	Two investigations that support Alcubierre's theory are introduced
B)	Possible objections to the uses of the warp drive are present, and then refuted
C)	An objection to the practicality of the theory is raised, and then another work is cited to shore up the applicability of the original theory
D)	A work of theoretical physics that supports Alcubierre's theory is raised, and then another that refutes it is presented
E)	Alcubierre's theory is analyzed by a panel of several eminent physicists

Explanation

Read the first sentence of the paragraph: "But in 1997 Michael Pfenning and Larry Ford at Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, apparently killed this ingenious idea by showing that it needed far more than the entire energy content of the Universe to work (This Week, 26 July 1997, p 6)". Then read the second sentence: "Now Chris Van Den Broeck of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium, has resurrected Alcubierre's proposal". So if we out those two sentences together, and in different words, first the usefulness of Alcubierre's theory is questioned by two researchers, then the theory is validated by yet another researcher. Which of the answer choices is closest to this? C. None of the other answer choices follow the organizational pattern of the paragraph – they reverse it, or are completely dissimilar. C is the only possible answer.

1. Read the whole text of the passage once.

2. Make brief notes about the text on your scrap paper.

3. Remember that the tone or attitude of the passage is usually respectful and moderate, never going to extremes of praise nor criticism.

4. Look out for structural words that tell you the important ideas or transitions in a passage.

5. Go back to the text of the passage for the answers to specific questions.

English Usage / Grammar Compendium

Hi All,

From today onwards, I would be posting a few points on the practical usage of English. I would update it every now and then. My request to you is not to start any discussions below this thread. Please go through it on a daily basis and learn as much as you can. You can discuss the points in a separate thread.If you would like to contribute something, you can mail the material to me and I will add it with your name. My email id is dagny@totalgadha.com

Let' start:-

beside and besides
Beside is a preposition meaning 'at the side of', 'by' or 'next to'
Why is the cat sitting beside the chair?

Besides is used when we add new information to what is already known.
Besides aerobics, I have to do crunches and push ups.

Besides can also be used as a discourse marker meaning 'also', 'in any case',and 'as well'. It is often used to add a stronger, more conclusive argument to what has gone before. In this case, besides usually goes at the beginning of the clause.
It's too late to go out now. Besides, it's starting to rain.
I don't like this dress; besides,it's too expensive.

besides, except and apart from

Besides usually adds; it is like saying with, or in addition to or plus (+).
Besides cornflakes, I have fruits for my breakfast.

Except subtracts; it's like saying without, or minus (-).
I like all fruits except apples.

Apart from can be used in both senses.
Apart from cornflakes, I have fruits for breakfast. (= besides cornflakes)
I like all fruits apart from apples.(=except apples)

After no, nobody, nothing and similar negative words, the three expressions (besides, except, apart from) can all have the same meaning.

He has nothing except/besides/apart from his house. (= He only has his house.)

Grammar Googly- 1

1 . If a Singular object is separated by a comma from an accompanying phrase it remains singular.

Correct : Ricky, accompanied by his wife was at the party.

Incorrect : Rickey, accompanied by his wife were at the party.

2 . A relative pronoun should be placed as close to its antecedent as possible.

Correct : I have read writings of Plato, who was a disciple of Socrates.

Incorrect : I have read Plato's writing who was a disciple of Socrates.

Antecedent- The noun for which the pronoun is used.

Plato is the noun and its antecedent is who (relative pronoun)

3 . A reflexive pronoun cannot be used alone as a subject of the verb. It must be preceded by some other noun or pronoun.

Correct : Her mother and I were standing there.

Incorrect : Myself and her mother were standing there.

Reflexive pronoun- Formed by adding self/selves to the pronoun.

4. An intransitive verb will always be followed by a subject pronoun.

Correct : It must have been she at the door.

Incorrect : It must have been her at the door.

Correct : I wish I were he.

Incorrect : I wish I were him.

Correct : He didn't know that it was I who did it.

Incorrect : He didn’t know that it was me who did it.

Intransitive Verb

An intransitive verb is an action verb (that is, it is neither a linking verb nor an auxiliary verb) which does not have a direct object.

The action is still being done, but it is not being done to anything or anyone else.

Most verbs can be both intransitive and transitive depending on the sentence. The verb to go, however, is always intransitive.

Transitive: He runs a large corporation.
(The verb runs has a direct object, corporation.)

Intransitive: He runs around the block daily.
(There is no direct object.)

5 . When in doubt about the correctness of who and whom try substituting subject/object of simpler pronouns to clarify the meaning.

Example : I didn't know who/whom Rakesh meant.

Try substituting he/him

Ravi meant he (wrong)

Ravi meant him (correct)

Example : There was a discussion as to who/whom is better suited.

Substituting she/her

She is better suited. (Correct)

Her is better suited. (Wrong)

6 . 'I don’t have' is used for things occurring habitually. 'I haven't' is used for particular occasions.

Correct: I haven't the time to go to the movie today.

Incorrect : I don't have time to go to the movie today.

7 . Conjunction 'though' and 'but' cannot be used together.

8. When a pronoun is the object of the preposition, it is used in the objective case.

Correct: No one including Sunil and me agree to the cause.

Incorrect: No one including Sunil and I agree to the cause.

'me' is the object of the preposition 'including' and hence used in objective case. 'I' is the nominative case.

Nominative case

	Singular	Plural
1st person	I	We
2nd person	You	You
3rd person	He, She, It	They

Objective Case

	Singular	Plural
1st person	Me	Us
2nd person	You	You
3rd person	Him, Her, It	Them

Possessive Case

	Singular	Plural
1st person	My, Mine	Our, Ours
2nd person	You, Yours	You, Yours
3rd person	His, Her, Its	Their

9 . A pronoun or a noun preceding a gerund should always be in the possessive case.

Correct: My mother does not like my going to the party.

Incorrect: My mother does not like me going to the party.

Correct : He was happy at his brother's coming home at the festival.

A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun.

10. Order of placing person

1. Third person

2. Second person

3. First person

Example: Rashmi, You and I went to the party.

11. If two actions happened in the past, it may be necessary to show which action occurred earlier than the other. The past perfect is mainly used in such situations. The simple past is used in one clause and past perfect in the other.

Example : I had done my exercise when Harish came to see me.

Example: I had written the letter before he arrived.

Example: Everyone in the class had finished the assignment before the bell rang.

12: In the sentences that include verbs of persuasion, a person exerts his will over another or causes an individual to do something. The verb of persuasion will be located in the first clause; the main verb will be in the 'base form' or 'infinitive form'.

Correct : I insist that she study hard.

Incorrect: I insist that she should study hard.

Correct : I demand they stop this at once.

Incorrect: I demand they should stop this at once.

Correct : The girl next door suggested that the boy buy the boat with cash.

Incorrect: The girl next door suggested that the boy should buy the boat with cash.

The Subjunctive Mood

A verb is in the subjunctive mood when it expresses a condition which is doubtful or not factual. It is most often found in a clause beginning with the word if. It is also found in clauses following a verb that expresses a doubt, a wish, regret, request, demand, or proposal.

These are verbs typically followed by clauses that take the subjunctive:

ask, demand, determine, insist, move, order, pray, prefer, recommend, regret, request, require, suggest, and wish.

In English there is no difference between the subjunctive and normal, or indicative, form of the verb except for the present tense third person singular and for the verb to be.

The subjunctive for the present tense third person singular drops the -s or -es so that it looks and sounds like the present tense for everything else.

The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is be in the present tense and were in the past tense, regardless of what the subject is.

Incorrect : If I was you, I would run.

Correct : If I were you, I would run.
(The verb follows if and expresses a non-factual condition.)

Incorrect : I wish he was able to type faster.

Correct : I wish he were able to type faster.
(The second verb is in a clause following a verb expressing a wish. It also suggests a non-factual or doubtful condition.)

Incorrect : His requirement is that everyone is computer literate.

Correct : His requirement is that everyone be computer literate.
(Subordinate clause follows main clause with a demand.)

Incorrect : He recommended that each driver reports his tips.

Correct : He recommended that each driver report his tips.

13. When 'each', 'every' or 'many a' precedes two or more subjects linked by 'and', they separate the subjects and the verb is singular.

Correct: Each of the book's protagonist- Mark, Mary and Thomas has a powerful personality.

14. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case should not be used as an antecedent to relative pronoun.

Correct : Do not forget the enthusiasm of him who brought the movement so far.

Incorrect: Do not forget his enthusiasm who brought the movement so far.

His here is in the possessive case hence cannot be used as an antecedent for relative pronoun 'who'

15. The word superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, anterior, and posterior take to instead of than.

Correct : Rajiv is inferior to Ravi .

Incorrect: Rajiv is inferior than Ravi .

16. 'Like' and 'Unlike' signal comparison, so when a sentence starts with 'like' or 'unlike' make sure that the sentence compares similar things, things that can be logically compared and things that are in the same grammatical form.

Correct: Unlike the people who settled in the western state after the passage of the homeland act, the prospectors and adventurers who came to California during the gold rush hoped to get rich quickly.

Here similar things, 'people who settled' the western state are compared to the 'prospectors and adventurers'

Correct : Sikhism's teachings, like those of most other religions, are codified in a book.

Incorrect : Like most other religions, the teachings of Sikhism are codified in a book.

You cannot compare 'most religions' to 'teachings of Sikhism'. The correct sentence should compare teachings to teachings and religions to religions. 'Those' in the correct sentence stand for teachings. Since those follow 'teachings', hence pronoun 'those' stand for noun 'teachings'.

17. Connectors or in built parallel structures

Either… or

As much….as

Not so much…as

And or yet

Both… and

Neither… nor

Not… only

But… also

Not only is always followed by BUT ALSO.

NOR only comes after NEITHER.

1. Vocabulary Can you show me a good reader who doesn’t have a good vocabulary? I am afraid that the answer is a no. You cannot understand passage

One question that will never stop coming from the students who prepare for CAT is ‘how to increase the vocabulary?’ Suggestions such as read a lot, mug up words lists, make flash cards, subscribe to word a day etc. have always poured in from human race. Since I am the Queen of the Gadha Land, I am quite allergic to the advices that mortals always keep giving me. I like to make my own rules - Gadha Rules.

Each one of us must have followed some comic strip when we were kids but a few like me got addicted, and waste at least an hour each day even when we have left childhood at least 2 decades back. My day doesn’t complete without taking my daily dose of Archie, Peanuts, Nancy, Calvin and Hobbes, Dilbert, Garfield, Dennis etc.

But have you ever thought that these comics are a rich source of vocabulary and learning new words can really come with an incentive of laughter? Let me prove myself:

This strip is from Peanuts:

Notice the word underlined in red. Notches. Oh Wait! don’t look at the dictionary right away, let’s guess the meaning first. From the strip I can make out that Sally (the girl) is saying something nasty to Snoopy (the dog) and previously she says that she wants to put Snoopy in his place and show that he’s not so important. So you know basically that she wants to take him down on the level of importance. Okay now we will check the dictionary meaning- a point or level on a scale. Ahh! we were quite close.

How can I forget Garfield? One of my friend calls me Garfield and I have no clue why. Actually he also doesn’t have. Anyways, have a look:

‘Ode to Monday’ and ‘nothing to rhyme with’ gives me a feeling that it has something to do with a poem. Dictionary meaning- a poem addressed to a person or thing or celebrating an event. Bang! This was a bull’s eye.

Calvin and Hobbes- This one is my favourite. This is the easiest gift that people think of giving me. Oh! Its Dagny’s birthday; What should we gift her? The instant answer is Calvin and Hobbes comics. But no more guys, I am done with the entire work now.

Wow! four new words in just one strip. We’ll go one by one. Sublime- From Calvin’s expression it looks that he is praising the work of art and is quite impressed. Also, the words moving, enriching, high art have to be in sync with sublime. It has to be close to inspiring. Dictionary meaning- impressing the mind with a sense of grandeur or power; inspiring awe, veneration, etc. Juvenile , I know because I have always heard the term ‘juvenile books’. Dictionary meaning: Juvenile- pertaining to, characteristic of, or suitable or intended for young persons. Last, sterile and sophomoric can never be praising words because Calvin is a self obsessed 6 year old; he can never praise Hobbes’ work/ ideas. So, the dictionary meanings- Sophomoric- immature; Sterile - not productive of results, ideas, etc.; fruitless. Close huh!

I’d be surprised if an engineer (especially an IITian) is not aware of Dilbert. I mean engineers definitely relate themselves to Dilbert because of common personal traits such as idiosyncrasy of style, hopelessness in dating, and attraction to tools and technological products. Okay, Kill me!

From Alice’s expression in the last image, you can make out that menial, bloated, and cadaver have nothing to do with pleasent words. Menial task and unimportant give me the feel of lowly. And bloated cadaver has to do with ruined career. Meanings as per dictionary.com- Menial- lowly and sometimes degrading: menial work; bloated- swollen; dead body, esp. a human body to be dissected; corpse. Now do you want to kill Asok?

This is one way that you can increase your vocabulary on day to day basis. I am sure many of you must have come across a term, visual vocabulary. You can create your own visual vocabulary with just a little creativity and can even ask your friends for different ideas. Here, you look at the dictionary meaning and try to make your own illustrations in mind. Let me show you some examples:

Bloated- I can remember this word as Blow+ Ted (now Ted can be a name of a frog or name of someone you don’t like)

Latent- hidden, dormant.

If you lay in the tent, you will be hidden from the rest of the world. So, latent means hidden.

Aghast- Speechless with horror.

This one is easy.

Now how would one react if one happens to see a ghost? He/She would be speechless with horror.

Fetish: An abnormally obsessive preoccupation or attachment; a fixation. Fatty has fetish for collecting fat fish.

Sonorous means giving out or capable of giving out a sound, esp. a deep, resonant sound, as a thing or place: a sonorous cavern or full and loud and deep; "heavy sounds"; "a herald chosen for his sonorous voice. What can be a better way to recall it sonorous other than the word ‘snore’? Easy?

These are just a few examples on how you can guess the meanings of the words from the context, and how you can learn meanings directly by making your own illustrations. You can really play with your creativity and increase your vocabulary with a lot of fun. You can make rough sketches for your reference sake, make funny sentences so as to remember words. All it takes is a little interest and creativity.

Exercise:-

Try to make illustrations or pour in your ideas (if you don’t have much time) for the following words:

Assiduous, mirage, porcine, doldrums, austere.

Keep all the advices of humans aside and start working as gadhas. Human Beings- they can keep working hard and getting bored.

Reading Comprehension Strategy- 1, Building Blocks of Reading Comprehension

1. Vocabulary

Can you show me a good reader who doesn’t have a good vocabulary? I am afraid that the answer is a no. You cannot understand passages if you cannot understand words. Word recognition is essential for decoding texts and comprehending aims of their authors. A good reader subconsciously recognizes whether a certain word makes sense in a given sentence and the context of the text being read. If it does not, he reads the text again to understand if he has misunderstood or misread. Fluent word recognition takes less cognitive capacity and makes the reader sail smoothly through a complete text without stressing himself. On the other hand, a sloppy word recognition results in frequent breaks in reading, loss of interest, and subsequent loss of recall about what was being said in the passage.

Although a good vocabulary takes long time to build, a workable essential vocabulary can be built over a short period of time by constantly referring to the dictionary, analyzing words and their various meanings, and connecting every word with your own life. The sooner you start doing this, the earlier you will start making headway in your reading.

EXAMPLE: See if the words in this passage slow you down-

Did you understand the text? Did the words in the text make you stop? If the above text, containing only three sentences, slowed you down, consider what will happen when you face full page text containing difficult words.

Here are some words in the passage explained-

· Metaphysics - The branch of philosophy that examines the nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, substance and attribute, fact and value.

· Antitheses - The direct or exact opposite. Direct contrast; opposition.

· Wary - Watchful, alert, vigilant, guarded, circumspect, prudent.

· De Omnibus Dubitandum - All is to be doubted. (Rene Descartes)

· Valuation - The act of estimating or setting the value of something; appraisal. An estimated value or worth.

· Provisional - providing or serving for the time being only; existing only until permanently or properly replaced; temporary.

· Frog’s perspective - The exact opposite of a “bird’s perspective.” Consider a frog sitting on a floor or floating on the surface of water. The angle at which it views things around itself will be from a lower plane. Perhaps the adjoining two pictures will explain better:

Now can you understand the passage? I bet you can!

Moral: Get you vocabulary in place, and get it in place now!

2. Reading Habit

A reader who has a high prior knowledge about the topic of the text will always understand it better than a reader who has a low or no prior knowledge. Connecting the ideas given in the text to what you already know helps you understand the text better. Trying to read a text about which you know nothing is like pouring water through a sieve; you don’t retain much. For example, try reading these numbers:

7615423 Isn’t it hard to read and remember?

761-5324 This one is easier because of grouping.

123-4567 You can read it and remember it because of mental connection.

Similarly, if you like reading about science, reading science passages will be easy for you. Same goes for philosophy, psychology etc. Our mind connects to things it already knows. Reading extensively will enhance your prior knowledge about various topics and in turn enhance your reading comprehension. Start reading high-quality, information-rich texts on a regular basis. The pain taken now will result in an easy ride later. You can use the following resources that I used to crack my CAT and GMAT verbal section:

A. Newspaper- The Hindu

B. Magazine- The Economist, Time

C. Website- http://www.businessweek.com/, http://www.guardian.co.uk/

3. Knowing the Structure of Paragraph Writing

Every good writer writes in a structured and purposeful manner. His texts have a beginning, a middle and an end. Knowing the structure of paragraph writing can help a reader locate theme of the passage, author’s intention, and transitional words or phrases that change the meaning of the paragraph.

Fallacies

For all CAT 2008 aspirants who love to argue among their friends, here is a potent weapon to hone their reasoning skills. A knowledge of errors that we commit while making arguments will prevent us from committing them. A fallacy is an error in reasoning where the argument fails to establish the truth because it relies on premisses that do not imply the conclusion. In a fallacious argument, the conclusion could be false even if all its premisses were true. Therefore, a fallacy is an argument which may seem to be correct but is not so. Aristotle, in his Sophistical Refutations (Sophistici Elenchi), identified thirteen fallacies. Today, a list of more than 100 has been developed.

Fallacy of the Consequent or the If-then fallacy:

Fallacy of the consequent draws a conclusion from premises that do not support that conclusion. The fallacy is based on the following argument:

Only two valid reasoning can be made out of this argument:

If it rains, peacock will dance.

There will be hypothetical deductions from this statement:

1. It rains
2. It does not rain
3. Peacock dances
4. Peacock does not dance
   

1) It rains- If this statement is true, then peacock will dance.
2) If it does not rain- From this statement, we can deduce nothing because it is not necessary that peacock dances only when it rains. There can be other reasons why a peacock may dance.
3) If peacock dances- From this statement also we can deduce nothing because peacock can dance even when it does not rain.
4) If peacock does not dance- From this statement it can be deduced that it has not rained for sure. Because, had it rained, peacock would have danced for sure.

From the following example, we are sure of 2 things-

1) What will happen if A occurs.
2) What happened if B did not occur.

Embedded if-then statements:

The pattern

A only if B ⇒ If A then B.

Ram and Shyam both cannot dance.

From the above statement, two conclusions can be drawn.

1) If Ram dances, then Shyam cannot dance.
2) If Shyam dances, then Ram cannot dance.

I will go to Goa only if I have enough money.

Correct Interpretation:

If I go to Goa, then for sure I have enough money.

Incorrect Interpretation:

If I have enough money, then I will go to Goa.

The only surety that we get from the main statement is that if I went to Goa then I had enough money.

Fallacy of accident/Hasty Generalization:

This fallacy is committed when assumptions are made based on a sample, which is either inadequate or incomplete. The Fallacy of Accident is committed when a general rule is applied to a particular case.

My friend said her mother is strict.
My mother is also strict.
All mothers must be strict.

This is a faulty generalization because I am making a biased conclusion based on a small sample. Many mothers may not be strict at all.

I have tasted 3 ice-creams from Wality Qualls.
I didn’t like the taste of all three.
Therefore, the ice-creams from Wality Qualls are bad.

The conclusion is fallacious because the three ice-creams that I didn’t like may be liked by someone else. But the generalization that the ice-creams from Wallity Qualls are bad is wrong.

Tu Quoque Fallacy:

Tu Quoque means ‘you too’. This type of argument is focused on the personal character of the opponent. Here the arguer points out that the opponent’s opinion are not be trusted because the opponent has actually done something he/she is arguing against. This fallacy attempts to show that a criticism or objection applies equally to the person stating it.

The pattern

A makes criticism B.
A is also guilty of B.

Therefore, B is false.

Mom: Rohan, don’t smoke. It is harmful for your health.
Rohan: I will smoke because you too smoked when you were of my age.

Here Rohan’s response is fallacious because the fact that Rohan’s mom has done something that she is comdemning Rohan to do has no bearing on the premise that she puts forward in her argument. (i.e. Smoking is harmful for health)

Q: Now, the United States government says that you are still funding military training camps here in Afghanistan for militant, Islamic fighters and that you're a sponsor of international terrorism.… Are these accusations true? …

Osama Bin Laden: …At the time that they condemn any Muslim who calls for his right, they receive the highest top official of the Irish Republican Army at the White House as a political leader, while woe, all woe is the Muslims if they cry out for their rights. Wherever we look, we find the US as the leader of terrorism and crime in the world. The US does not consider it a terrorist act to throw atomic bombs at nations thousands of miles away, when it would not be possible for those bombs to hit military troops only. These bombs were rather thrown at entire nations, including women, children and elderly people and up to this day the traces of those bombs remain in Japan. The US does not consider it terrorism when hundreds of thousands of our sons and brothers in Iraq died for lack of food or medicine. So, there is no base for what the US says and this saying does not affect us.…

Ad Hominen Fallacy:

Ad Hominen means ‘against the person’. This fallacy is committed based on the person’s personal character rather than on evidence or conclusion. In this kind of argument, the opponent is attacked rather than his statements. Participants in heated conversation sometimes disparage the character of their opponent and question their integrity. But the character of an individual is logically irrelevant to the truth or falsity of his argument or reasoning.

The pattern

1. Person A makes claim X.
2. Person B makes an attack on person A.
3. Therefore A's claim is false.

Jane has written many books on feminism and female infanticide. But I do not trust her writings because she was convicted for felony drug addiction when she was young.

Circular Reasoning/ Begging the question / petitio principii:

Petitio principii is a Latin phrase meaning begging or taking for granted of the beginning or of a principle. This fallacy is committed when one assumes the claim to be true what one is proving. It is essentially repeating the statement in different or stronger terms. This logical fallacy attempts to undermine a speaker's argument by attacking the speaker instead of addressing the argument.

"Dear Friend, a man who has studied law to its highest degree is a brilliant lawyer, for a brilliant lawyer has studied law to its highest degree." Oscar Wilde, De Profundis.

In the above example the conclusion has been assumed in the premise itself that Cricket has the biggest fan following in the world without even proving or putting forward the essential facts. The statement by Rob is actually the restatement of what Richard has claimed.

The pattern:

• A implies B

• suppose A

• Therefore, B. OR A is B, therefore A is B.

"You know that God is a just and loving God because God is God and cannot be unjust or unloving."

The second claim does not offer any evidence; it is essentially repeating the premise.

Weak or Faulty Analogy/ Ceteris Paribus Assumption/ Questionable Analogy / Faulty Analogy / Vague Similarities /Extended Analogy/ Faulty Comparison/ False Metaphor:

Ceteris Paribus means with other things being the same. In faulty/weak analogy, an argument takes place between two or more things, situations or ideas. The argument is taken for granted that since a few things are same, the rest of things would also be the same.

The pattern :

A and B are similar.
B has property X.
Therefore, A has property X.

Eg. Railways are like airlines.
Both are modes of transportation.
Since railways have lower fares, airlines should also have lower fares.

The conclusion is fallacious because the arguer is not considering many other factors into consideration for airlines charging higher fares.

Eg. Giraffes have fur, eat plants, and have names that start with G.
Guinea pigs also have a name that starts with a G, have fur, and eat plants.
Guinea pigs are also probably very large.

Ad Populam:

This Latin phrase means ‘to the people’. This fallacy is committed when the arguer tries to convince the audience by putting the desires or likes of most of the people and ultimately convincing the audience to believe something because ‘everyone else does.’ The basis of the ad populum appeal is the assumption that large numbers of audience is more likely to be right than you are likely to be right.

The Pattern

Most, many, or all persons approve of statement A.
Statement A is true.

Eg: 70% of Indians agree that they become lazy during the winters. So, winters are a season of laziness.

The conclusion is fallacious because the arguer is trying to convince that because 70% Indians agree to a common cause, it must be taken true for all. Always remember that it is good to keep a popular opinion but it may not be right always.

This fallacy is also commonly used for marketing and advertising purposes:

Sony. Ask anyone.
Fifty million Elvis fans can't be wrong.

False cause/ Post Hoc:

Post hoc is taken form a Latin phrase ‘ Post hoc ergo propter hoc. It means ‘after this, therefore, because of this. The fallacy takes place because of mere proximity of time. Assuming that B comes after A, A caused it.

The Pattern:

1. A occured just before B.

2. Therefore A caused B.

The only policy that effectively reduces public shootings is right-to-carry laws. Allowing citizens to carry concealed handguns reduces violent crime. In the 31 states that have passed right-to-carry laws since the mid-1980s, the number of multiple-victim public shootings and other violent crimes has dropped dramatically. Murders fell by 7.65%, rapes by 5.2%, aggravated assaults by 7%, and robberies by 3%.

The statement is fallacious because crimes may have dropped because of some other reasons but the arguer has overlooked them and assumed that B comes after A so, A caused it.

Straw Man:

In this fallacy, the arguer attributes an argument to the opponent that does not represent opponent’s true position. The arguer sets up an untrue version of the opponent’s position. To "set up a straw man" or "set up a straw man argument" is to describe a position that superficially resembles an opponent's actual view but is easier to refute, then attribute that position to the opponent (for example, deliberately overstating the opponent's position).

The pattern:-

1. Person A has position X.

2. Person B presents position Y (which is actually the distorted version of X).

3. Person B attacks position Y.

4. Therefore X is false/incorrect/flawed.

Animal lovers want ban on using leather items.

This argument is fallacious because many animal lovers may themselves be using leather items and their love for animals may be restricted to stray animals.

‘All things are equal’ Fallacy:

This fallacy is committed when it is assumed that the background conditions have remained same irrespective of place, situation, or time.

Eg. Rashi stood first in class last year.
She will stand first this year as well.

The argument is fallacious because the arguer has overlooked that factors that may go against Rashi standing first in the class this year as well. The factors may range from Rashi not have worked hard enough this year or she might have fallen ill because of which she couldn’t prepare much etc.

Fallacy of Equivocation:

The term equivocation comes from the Latin terms equi (equal) and vox (voice) - and means "with equal voice .This fallacy is committed when a phrase/ word has more than one meaning but the word/ phrase slides between the different meanings that are important according to the context of the argument.

The Pattern:

a. Premise: Statement(s) using term A in sense 1
b. Premise: Statement using term A in sense 2
c. AND/OR Conclusion: Statement using term X in sense 2

Eg. Jam is better than nothing
Nothing is better than butter
Therefore jam is better than butter

This equivocation exploits two different meanings of the word "nothing" to come to an apparent conclusion about the relative merits of two different things without actually making reference to any of their respective merits. In the first statement, "nothing" really means "dry bread" (such that the sentence means "it is preferable to have jam [on bread] than nothing at all"), whereas in the second, it means, literally, "no thing" (so the sentence means "there exists no thing that is better than butter").

Non Sequitor:

Non Sequitor means ‘does not follow’. This fallacy is committed when the conclusion does not strictly follow from the premises. The premises have no direct relationship to the conclusion.

Eg. Abhinav is tall, he must be fat.

The statement is fallacious because Abhinav’s being tall does not qualify that he is fat.
Rhea will stand first in class because she has put in lot of efforts.

The argument does not consider that someone else might be better than Rhea or Rhea must have put in lot of efforts but have not written her answers well in her exams etc.